Identity-Based Workplace Discrimination in Romania. Experiences of LGBTQ Community Members
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24837/pru.v20i1.501Keywords:
workplace discrimination, LGBTQ, Romania, gender identity, sexual orientationAbstract
Among challenges faced by LGBTQ community members throughout the world, workplace discrimination is one that can heavily influence how these individuals adjust their behavior in organizational settings. This study investigates perceptions of workplace discrimination experienced by members of the LGBTQ community in Romania in order to map discrimination patterns and the effects felt by the participants. Through the ten interviews conducted with employees of various organizations from various Romanian cities, this research shows that discrimination is perceived to engender both positive and negative effects, and the timing of coming out is found to be an important factor. Whereas the participants’ relationship to their supervisors might not suffer dramatic changes, coworkers seem to engage in various forms of discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity, such as microaggressions.
Downloads
References
Ahmed, A. M., Andersson, L., & Hammarstedt, M. (2013). Are gay men and lesbians discriminated against in the hiring process?. Southern Economic Journal, 79(3), 565-585. https://doi.org/10.4284/0038-4038-2011.317
Aksoy, C. G., Carpenter, C. S., Frank, J., & Huffman, M. L. (2019). Gay glass ceilings: Sexual orientation and workplace authority in the UK. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 159, 167-180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2019.01.013
Ayón, C. (2015). Economic, social, and health effects of discrimination on Latino immigrant families. Migration Policy Institute. https://www.immigrationresearch.org/system/files/FCD-Ayon.pdf
Badgett, M. L., Waaldijk, K., & van der Meulen Rodgers, Y. (2019). The relationship between LGBT inclusion and economic development: Macro-level evidence. World Development, 120, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.03.011
Badgett, M. V., Sears, B., Lau, H., & Ho, D. (2009). Bias in the workplace: Consistent evidence of sexual orientation and gender identity discrimination 1998-2008. Chi.-Kent L. Rev., 84, 559. https://scholarship.law.unc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1186&context=faculty_publications
Baker, S. J., & Lucas, K. (2017). Is it safe to bring myself to work? Understanding LGBTQ experiences of workplace dignity. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences/Revue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Administration, 34(2), 133-148. ttps://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.1439
Bialer, P. A., & McIntosh, C. A. (2016). Discrimination, stigma, and hate: The impact on the mental health and well-being of LGBT people. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 20(4), 297-298. DOI: 10.1080/19359705.2016.1211887
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2019). Reflecting on reflexive thematic analysis. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 11(4), 589-597. DOI: 10.1080/2159676X.2019.1628806
Braun, V., Clarke, V., Hayfield, N., & Terry, G. (2019). Thematic analysis. In P. Liamputtong (Ed.), Handbook of Research Methods in Health Social Sciences (pp. 843-860). Springer.
Bryson, A. (2017). Pay equity after the Equality Act 2010: does sexual orientation still matter?. Work, employment and society, 31(3), 483-500. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950017016664678
Burdge, B. J. (2008). Legal discrimination against lesbian, gay, and bisexual employees: A multi-theoretical model to explain an elusive civil rights law. Journal of policy practice, 8(1), 4-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/15588740802551217
Carlson, E. S., Gammage, S., & Barrientos, J. (2015). Is prejudice against LGBT persons linked to increased HIV vulnerability for heterosexual men? Lessons for human rights advocacy from South America. Journal of Human Rights Practice, 7(2), 327-341. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhuman/huv003
Chance, T. F. (2013). Going to pieces over LGBT health disparities: How an amended Affordable Care Act could cure the discrimination that ails the LGBT community. Journal of Health Care Law & Policy, 16(2), 375-402. https://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/jhclp/vol16/iss2/5
Charbonnier, E., & Graziani, P. (2016). The stress associated with the coming out process in the young adult population. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 20(4), 319-328. https://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2016.1182957
Chilin, T., & Lup, O. (2017). ADID in Romania: A longitudinal approach. Open Politics.
Chuang, Y. T., Church, R., & Ophir, R. (2011). Taking sides: The interactive influences of institutional mechanisms on the adoption of same-sex partner health benefits by Fortune 500 corporations, 1990–2003. Organization Science, 22(1), 190-209. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1090.0521
CNCD. (n.d.). Ce este discriminarea? [What is discrimination?]. Author. https://www.cncd.ro/ce-este-discriminarea/
Colgan, F., Creegan, C., McKearney, A., & Wright, T. (2007). Equality and diversity policies and practices at work: lesbian, gay and bisexual workers. Equal Opportunities International, 26(6), 590-609. https://doi.org/10.1108/02610150710777060
Colvin, A. (2009). Employment arbitration: Empirical findings and research needs. Cornell University. https://hdl.handle.net/1813/75526
Correia, N., & Kleiner, B. H. (2001). New developments concerning sexual orientation discrimination and harassment. International journal of sociology and social policy, 21(8/9/10), 92-100. https://doi.org/10.1108/01443330110789844
Costache, I. (2016). Un liceu sigur pentru toți: Percepții și atitudini față de persoanele LGBT în mediul educațional românesc. ACCEPT Romania.
Croteau, J. M. (1996). Research on the work experiences of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people: An integrative review of methodology and findings. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 48(2), 195-209. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1996.0018
Day, N. E., & Greene, P. G. (2008). A case for sexual orientation diversity management in small and large organizations. Human Resource Management: Published in Cooperation with the School of Business Administration, The University of Michigan and in alliance with the Society of Human Resources Management, 47(3), 637-654. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.20235
Day, N. E., & Schoenrade, P. (1997). Staying in the closet versus coming out: Relationships between communication about sexual orientation and work attitudes. Personnel Psychology, 50(1), 147-163. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1997.tb00904.x
Delgado, A. J., Gordon, D., & Schnarrs, P. (2016). The effect of discrimination and stress on sexual and behavioral health among sexual minority servicemen. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 20(3), 258-279. https://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2016.1141344.
Dexter, L. A. (1970). Elite and specialized interviewing. Northwestern University Press.
Dobre, M. H. (2011). Theories of Discrimination. In Romania in the European Union The Quality of Integration Structural and Regional Disparities (pp. 61-68). http://store.ectap.ro/suplimente/Romania_in_Uniunea_Europeana-Calitatea_intregrarii_en.pdf
Dovidio, J. F., Hewstone, M., Glick, P., & Esses, V. M. (2010). Prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination: Theoretical and empirical overview. In Dovidio, J. F., Glick, P., & M. Hewstone (eds.), Prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination (pp. 3-28). Sage Publications Ltd.
Dragomir, V. A. (2020). The Relationship between Experienced Discrimination and the Level of Empathy in Members of the LGBT Community. Journal of Experiential Psychotherapy/Revista de PSIHOterapie Experientiala, 23(4).
Drydakis, N. (2015). Sexual orientation discrimination in the United Kingdom’s labour market: A field experiment. Human Relations, 68(11), 1769-1796. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726715569855
Drydakis, N. (2021). Sexual orientation discrimination in the labor market against gay men. Review of Economics of the Household, 1-32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-021-09581-8
Einarsen, S., Hoel, H., Zapf, D., & Cooper, C. L. (2003). Bullying and Emotional Abuse in the Workplace: International Perspectives in Research and Practice. Taylor & Francis.
European Commission. (2012). Special Eurobarometer 393: Discrimination in the EU in 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12389/21666
Flores, A. R. (2019). Social acceptance of LGBT people in 174 countries. University of California, Los Angeles School of Law Williams Institute.
Gacilo, J., Steinheider, B., Stone, T. H., Hoffmeister, V., Jawahar, I. M., & Garrett, T. (2018). The double-edged sword of having a unique perspective: Feelings of discrimination and perceived career advantages among LGBT employees. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal. https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-03-2017-0060
Galupo, M. P., & Resnick, C. A. (2016). Experiences of LGBT microaggressions in the workplace: Implications for policy. In Köllen, T. (ed.), Sexual orientation and transgender issues in organizations (pp. 271-287). Springer, Cham.
Griffith, K. H., & Hebl, M. R. (2002). The disclosure dilemma for gay men and lesbians:" coming out" at work. Journal of applied psychology, 87(6), 1191. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.6.1191
Guittar, N. A., & Rayburn, R. L. (2016). Coming out: The career management of one’s sexuality. Sexuality & Culture, 20(2), 336-357. DOI: 10.1007/s12119-015-9325-y
Gusmano, B. (2008). Coming out or not? How nonheterosexual people manage their sexual identity at work. Journal of Workplace Rights, 13(4). DOI: 10.2190/WR.13.4.g
Henneman, T. (2004). Acceptance of gays, lesbians is a big part of Kodak’s diversity picture. Workforce Management, 83, 68-70.
Herek, G. M. (2007). Confronting sexual stigma and prejudice: Theory and practice. Journal of Social Issues, 63(4), 905–925. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2007.00544.x
Heymann, J., Bose, B., Waisath, W., Raub, A., & McCormack, M. (2020). Legislative approaches to nondiscrimination at work: a comparative analysis across 13 groups in 193 countries. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal. DOI: 10.1108/EDI-10-2019-0259
Hossain, M., Atif, M., Ahmed, A., & Mia, L. (2020). Do LGBT workplace diversity policies create value for firms?. Journal of Business Ethics, 167(4), 775-791. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04158-z
Kneale, D., & Bécares, L. (2021). Discrimination as a predictor of poor mental health among LGBTQ+ people during the COVID-19 pandemic: cross-sectional analysis of the online Queerantine study. BMJ open, 11(6), e049405. DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-049405
Laurent, T., & Mihoubi, F. (2017). Sexual orientation, unemployment and participation: are gays less employable than straights?. Journal of Labor Research, 38(1), 1-44. DOI: 10.1007/s12122-016-9237-0
Lelutiu-Weinberger, C., & Pachankis, J. (2018). Evaluation of an LGBT-affirmative mental health practice training in a stigmatizing national context. European Journal of Public Health, 28(suppl_4), cky213-863. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/cky213.863
Manning, J. (2016). Identity, relationships, and culture: A constitutive model of coming out. In Manning, J., & C. Noland (eds.), Contemporary Studies of Sexuality & Communication: Theoretical and Applied Perspectives (pp. 93-108). Kendall Hunt. http://commons.lib.niu.edu/handle/10843/14869
Mara, L. C., Ginieis, M., & Brunet-Icart, I. (2021). Strategies for Coping with LGBT Discrimination at Work: a Systematic Literature Review. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 18(2), 339-354. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-020-00462-w
Marciano, A., & Antebi-Gruszka, N. (2020). Offline and online discrimination and mental distress among lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals: the moderating effect of LGBTQ facebook use. Media Psychology, 1-24. DOI: 10.1080/15213269.2020.1850295
Margarit, D. (2019). LGBTQ rights, conservative backlash and the constitutional definition of marriage in Romania. Gender, Place & Culture, 26(11), 1570-1587. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2019.1567472
McFadden, C., & Crowley-Henry, M. (2018). ‘My People’: the potential of LGBT employee networks in reducing stigmatization and providing voice. The International Journal of human resource management, 29(5), 1056-1081. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2017.1335339
Mendos, L. R. (2019). State-Sponsored Homophobia 2019. International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association. https://ilga.org/downloads/ILGA_State_Sponsored_Homophobia_2019.pdf
Mennicke, A., Gromer, J., Oehme, K., & MacConnie, L. (2018). Workplace experiences of gay and lesbian criminal justice officers in the United States: A qualitative investigation of officers attending a LGBT law enforcement conference. Policing and society, 28(6), 712-729. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2016.1238918
Monro, S., Christmann, K., Gibbs, G. R., & Monchuk, L. (2016). Professionally speaking: challenges to achieving equality for LGBT people. European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights.
Moraru, A. (2010). Social perception of homosexuality in Romania. Procedia, 2(2), 5726-5730. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.935
Morrow, S. L. (2005). Quality and trustworthiness in qualitative research in counseling psychology. Journal of counseling psychology, 52(2), 250.
Norocel, O. C., & Băluță, I. (2021). Retrogressive Mobilization in the 2018 “Referendum for Family” in Romania. Problems of Post-Communism, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1080/10758216.2021.1987270
Patache, L., & Neguriță, O. (2020). An Overview on Romanian Strategies regarding Roma Minority Concerning Education and Employment. Journal of Economic Development, Environment and People, 9(2), 60-70. https://doi.org/10.26458/jedep.v9i2.666
Pezzella, A. (2018). ‘Out’and about at work: institutionalised heteronormativity on relationships and employment. In Dunk-West, P., & T. Hafford-Letchfield (eds.), Sexuality, Sexual and Gender Identities and Intimacy Research in Social Work and Social Care (pp. 101-120). Routledge.
Prayson, R. A., & Rowe, J. J. (2019). LGBTQ inclusivity and language in the workplace. Critical Values, 12(2), 28-30. https://doi.org/10.1093/crival/vaz004
Rengers, J. M., Heyse, L., Otten, S., & Wittek, R. P. (2019). “It’s not always possible to live your life openly or honestly in the same way”–Workplace inclusion of lesbian and gay humanitarian aid workers in Doctors without Borders. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 320. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00320
Resnick, C. A., & Galupo, M. P. (2019). Assessing experiences with LGBT microaggressions in the workplace: Development and validation of the microaggression experiences at work scale. Journal of homosexuality, 66(10), 1380-1403. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2018.1542207
Rhead, R. D., Chui, Z., Bakolis, I., Gazard, B., Harwood, H., MacCrimmon, S., ... & Hatch, S. L. (2021). Impact of workplace discrimination and harassment among National Health Service staff working in London trusts: results from the TIDES study. BJPsych open, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1192/bjo.2020.137
Rospenda, K. M., Richman, J. A., & Shannon, C. A. (2009). Prevalence and mental health correlates of harassment and discrimination in the workplace: Results from a national study. Journal of interpersonal violence, 24(5), 819-843. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508317182
Rostosky, S. S., and Riggle, E. (2002). ‘Out’ at work: The relation of actor and partner workplace policy and internalized homophobia to disclosure status. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 49(4), 411–419. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.49.4.411
Rust, P. C. (2003). Finding a sexual identity and community: Therapeutic implications and cultural assumptions in scientific models of coming out. In Garnets, L. D., & D. C. Kimmel (eds.), Psychological perspectives on lesbian, gay, and bisexual experiences (pp. 227–269). Columbia University Press.
Sears, B., Mallory, C., Flores, A. R., & Conron, K. J. (2021). LGBT people’s experiences of workplace discrimination and harassment. UCLA School of Law. https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/Workplace-Discrimination-Sep-2021.pdf
Stocum, D. (2006). Is the closet required to have a career?. GayJob.biz. www.gayjob.biz/page.cfm?Sectionid=5&typeofsite=storydetail&ID=288&storyset=yes
Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. M. B., Nadal, K. L., & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271
Sue, D. W., Nadal, K. L., Capodilupo, C. M., Lin, A. I., Torino, G. C., & Rivera, D. P. (2008). Racial microaggressions against Black Americans: Implications for counseling. Journal of Counseling & Development, 86(3), 330-338. DOI: 10.1002/j.1556-6678.2008.tb00517.x
Sutter, M., & Perrin, P. B. (2016). Discrimination, mental health, and suicidal ideation among LGBTQ people of color. Journal of counseling psychology, 63(1), 98. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000126
Swiebel, J. (2002). Gay and lesbian rights and EU Enlargement. Open Society Institute. https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/publications/gay-and-lesbian-rights-and-eu-enlargement#publications_download
Takács, J. (2016). LGBT employees in the Hungarian labor market. In Sexual Orientation and Transgender Issues in Organizations (pp. 233-252). Springer, Cham.
Tejeda, M. J. (2006). Nondiscrimination policies and sexual identity disclosure: Do they make a difference in employee outcomes?. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 18(1), 45-59. DOI: 10.1007/s10672-005-9004-5
Turner, R. (2004). Grutter, the Diversity Justification, and Workplace Affirmative Action. Brandeis LJ, 43, 199.
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2015). Annual Report on the Federal Workforce Fiscal Year 2015. https://www.eeoc.gov/federal-sector/reports/annual-report-federal-workforce-fiscal-year-2015
Waite, S. (2021). Should I stay or should I go? Employment discrimination and workplace harassment against transgender and other minority employees in Canada’s federal public service. Journal of homosexuality, 68(11), 1833-1859. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2020.1712140
Whaibeh, E., Mahmoud, H., & Vogt, E. L. (2019). Reducing the treatment gap for LGBT mental health needs: The potential of telepsychiatry. The journal of behavioral health services & research, 1-8. DOI: 10.1007/s11414-019-09677-1
Yılmaz, V., & Göçmen, İ. (2016). Denied citizens of Turkey: Experiences of discrimination among LGBT individuals in employment, housing and health care. Gender, Work & Organization, 23(5), 470-488. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12122
Zugelder, M. T., & Champagne, P. J. (2018). A Management Approach to LGBT Employment: Diversity, Inclusion and Respect. Journal of Business Diversity, 18(1).
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Psihologia Resurselor Umane

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal,it also allows for use of the work for non-commercial purposes and if others remix, transform or build upon the works found in this journal they must distribute the contributions under the same licence as the original.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See: The Effect of Open Access).


